'Abdali
'Abdali. Original name of the Durrani, the royal Pashtun tribe, located in the Kandahar area of Afghanistan. They claim descent from Tarin and his youngest son Bar Tarin, or 'Abdal, hence their name 'Abdali. The Abdalis were first mentioned in history in 1589 when the Safavid shah appointed Sado as their chief, entrusting him with the safe passage of long-distance trade from India. The 'Abdalis remained in the Safavid orbit until 1717 when they declared themselves independent in Herat. Defeated by Nadir Shah Afshar in 1732, the 'Abdalis were incorporated into his army and moved to Kandahar. Upon Nadir Shah’s death in 1747, the 'Abdalis founded the Afghan state. Later, in 1747, Pir Sabir Shah, a sufi shaikh, proclaimed Ahmad Khan of the 'Abdali tribe Badshah, Durr-i Dauran (“King, the Pearl of the Age”), which Ahmad Shah later changed to Durr-i Durran (“Pearl of Pearls”). His 'Abdali tribe thereafter became known as the Durrani.
The 'Abdalis (Durranis) have been prominent leaders, as the royal family of Afghanistan is derived from the tribe, and a substantial number of Durrani Pashtuns are bureaucrats and public officials, as well as businessmen and merchants. The Durranis, like most Pashtuns, are of the Hanafi Sunni Muslim sect and continue to follow the Pashtun honor code known as Pashtunwali.
Durrani see 'Abdali.
Monday, May 5, 2014
'Abbasid
The 'Abbasid Caliphate or, more simply, the 'Abbasids, was the third of the Islamic caliphates. It was ruled by the 'Abbasid dynasty of caliphs, who built their capital in Baghdad after overthrowing the Umayyad caliphate from all but the al-Andalus region.
The 'Abbasid caliphate was founded by the descendants of the Prophet Muhammad's youngest uncle, 'Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566-653), in Kufa in 750 and shifted its capital in 762 to Baghdad. Within 150 years of gaining control of Persia, the caliphs were forced to cede power to local dynastic emirs who only nominally acknowledged their authority. The caliphate also lost the Western provinces of al-Andalus, Maghreb and Ifriqiya to an Umayyad prince, the Aghlabids and the Fatimid Caliphate, respectively.
The 'Abbasids' rule was briefly ended for three years in 1258, when Hulagu Khan, the Mongol khan, sacked Baghdad, resuming in Mameluke Egypt in 1261, from where they continued to claim authority in religious matters until 1519, when power was formally transferred to the Ottoman Empire and the capital relocated to Constantinople.
The 'Abbasids held the caliphate from 749 to 1258, but they were recognized neither in Spain nor (after 787) west of Egypt. Under the Umayyad caliphs the 'Abbasids lived quietly until they became involved in numerous disputes, beginning early in the 8th century of the Christian calendar. The family then joined with the Shiite faction in opposing the Umayyads, and in 747 the gifted Abu Muslim united most of the empire in revolt against the Umayyads. The head of the 'Abbasid family became caliph as Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah late in 749. The last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, was defeated and killed and the Umayyad family nearly exterminated. One surviving member fled to Spain, where the Umayyads came to rule. Under the second 'Abbasid caliph, called al-Mansur, the capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, and Persian influence grew strong in the empire. The early years of 'Abbasid rule were brilliant, rising to true splendor under Harun ar-Rashid, the fifth caliph, and to intellectual brilliance under his son al-Mamun, the seventh caliph. After less than a hundred years of rule, however, the slow decline of the 'Abbasids began. Long periods of disorder were marked by assassinations, depositions, control by Turkish soldiers, and other disturbances, and from the beginning of their reign there were rival caliphs.
In 836, the 'Abbasid capital was transferred to Samarra, remaining there until 892. Under the later 'Abbasids, the power of the caliphate became chiefly spiritual. Many independent kingdoms sprang up, and the empire split into autonomous units. The Seljuk Turks came to hold the real power at Baghdad. The conquests of Jenghiz Khan further lowered the prestige of the 'Abbasids, and in 1258 his grandson Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad and overthrew the 'Abbasid caliphate. The 37th caliph died in the disaster, but a member of the family escaped to Cairo, where he was recognized as caliph. The Cairo line of the 'Abbasid caliphate, completely subordinated to the Mamelukes, survived until after the Ottoman conquest (in 1517) of Egypt.
The 'Abbasid dynasty lasted for almost eight centuries, with capitals at Baghdad (750-1258) and Cairo (1262-1517). The ‘Abbasids were from the Arab tribe of Banu al-'Abbas, whose lineage was said to descend from the Prophet’s uncle, al-‘Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. All the rulers of the ‘Abbasid dynasty were descendants of 'Abbas, Muhammad’s uncle, and it was through Muhammad ibn 'Ali, the great-grandson of al-‘Abbas that the ‘Abbasids laid claim to the Caliphate.
The early history of the ‘Abbasid family is obscure. Despite his close kinship to Muhammad, al-‘Abbas was a relatively late convert to Islam and was most likely not as socially prestigious as later ‘Abbasid historiography made him out to be. According to the traditional sources, the ‘Abbasids shared the conviction, out of which Shi‘ite Islam later developed, that the family of the prophet Muhammad (which the ‘Abbasids interpreted to include the whole clan of Hashim) was entitled to a special status in the Muslim community. The family, the "ahl al-bait", supposedly inherited from Muhammad a number of financial, social, religious, and political privileges that had been usurped from them and that they endeavored to recover. The most important and most controversial of these was that the legitimate political and spiritual authority of the caliphate/imamate belonged to a charismatic leader (known as "al-Rida") from the "ahl al-bait".
During the Umayyad period (661-750), a number of sectarian or factional movements supporting the right of one or another of Muhammad’s kinsmen to rule as his true successor appeared. The ‘Abbasid family, living in exile in the village of Humaima near the Dead Sea, reportedly gained control (around 716) of one of these sects, known as the Hashimiyya after their original leader (a distant relative of the ‘Abbasids), and managed to transform it into an active and successful conspiratorial, revolutionary organization. Presumably directed from Humaima by the ‘Abbasid family, one branch of the movement operated out of Kufa (a center of vaguely proto-Shi‘ite agitation) and another had its headquarters in Merv, the provincial capital of Khurasan.
The mission in Khurasan was composed of an inner circle of twelve chiefs (nuqaba) and numerous propagandists who fanned out through the province encouraging whatever anti-government sentiment they encountered, most often without explicitly stating their own objectives. In this way, the conspirators built up a large base of support, including armed followers, in the province.
By 747, the authority of the Umayyad dynasty was collapsing everywhere. In Khurasan, the new leader of the clandestine movement, Abu Muslim, involved the ‘Abbasid organization in a general revolt against the last Umayyad governor of Khurasan. After a few months of intrigue and combat, Abu Muslim succeeded in seizing control of the government in Khurasan, eliminating potential rivals, and raising an army that rapidly marched across the Iranian provinces into Iraq and crushed the remaining Umayyad forces. Under circumstances that are anything but clear, the clique of officers commanding the Khurasani forces then hailed as the new caliph a member of the ‘Abbasid family who had been in hiding in Kufa. The reign of this caliph, Abu al-‘Abbas, known as al-Saffah (r. 749-754), was rather weak and insecure. It was his brother and successor, Abu Ja'far al-Mansur (r. 754-775), who managed to provide the dynasty with a solid foundation by disciplining the revolutionary forces, eliminating several too-powerful leaders of the 'Abbasid movement (including Abu Muslim), suppressing a variety of anti-‘Abbasid revolts, perfecting propaganda to legitimize ‘Abbasid claims to the caliphate, creating the great capital city of Baghdad, and developing a centralized imperial administration.
The significance of this ‘Abbasid “revolution” is a matter of considerable controversy. In some ways, there was not a dramatic break with the policies of the earlier Umayyad caliphs (for many of whom Mansur expressed admiration). As far as the ‘Abbasids were concerned, the key difference was probably that their dynasty had a religious legitimacy and right to rule that the Umayyads (and by extension other rivals) lacked. However, the advent of ‘Abbasid rule did coincide, deliberately or not, with a number of fundamental changes. These included the displacement of Arab tribesmen as the mainstay of the military forces, the “persianization” of the government in both the norms of statecraft and the numbers of Iranians holding government offices, and a shift in the focus of state concerns away from the Mediterranean and toward the east, hence the placement of the new capital in Iraq. In addition, urbanization and long-distance trade became more important, often to the detriment of the agricultural economy, and a more pronounced emphasis was placed on the Islamic nature of the society. In fact, it was primarily under the ‘Abbasids that Muslim arts, sciences, literature, law, and theology acquired their classical forms.
The 'Abbasid historical period lasting to the 1258 Mongol conquest of Baghdad is considered the Islamic Golden Age. The Islamic Golden Age was inaugurated by the middle of the 8th century by the ascension of the 'Abbasid Caliphate and the transfer of the capital from Damascus to Baghdad. The 'Abbasids were influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr" stressing the value of knowledge. During this period, the Muslim world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education as the 'Abbasids championed the cause of knowledge and established the House of Wisdom (Bayt ul-Hikma) in Baghdad. At the Bayt ul-Hikma, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars sought to translate and gather all the world's knowledge into Arabic. Many classic works of antiquity that would otherwise have been lost were translated into Arabic and Persian and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew and Latin. During this period the Muslim world was a cauldron of cultures which collected, synthesized and significantly advanced the knowledge gained from the ancient Roman, Chinese, Indian, Persian, Egyptian, North African, Greek and Byzantine civilizations.
The reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) and his successors fostered an age of great intellectual achievement. In large part, this was the result of the schismatic forces that had undermined the Umayyad regime, which relied on the assertion of the superiority of Arab culture as part of its claim to legitimacy, and the 'Abbasids' welcoming of support from non-Arab Muslims. It is well established that the 'Abbasid caliphs modeled their administration on that of the Persian Sassanids.
A number of medieval thinkers and scientists living under Islamic rule played a role in transmitting Islamic science to the Christian West. Through 'Abbasid translation and preservation efforts, the 'Abbasids contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. In addition, the period saw the recovery of much of the Alexandrian mathematical, geometric and astronomical knowledge, such as that of Euclid and Claudius Ptolemy. These recovered mathematical methods were later enhanced and developed by other Islamic scholars, notably by Persian scientists Al-Biruni and Abu Nasr Mansur.
Algebra was significantly developed by Persian scientist Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī during this time in his landmark text, Kitab al-Jabr wa-l-Muqabala, from which the term algebra is derived. He is thus considered to be the father of algebra by some, although the Greek mathematician Diophantus has also been given this title. The terms algorism and algorithm are derived from the name of al-Khwarizmi, who was also responsible for transmitting Arabic numerals and Hindu-Arabic numeral system beyond the Indian subcontinent.
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) developed an early scientific method in his Book of Optics (1021). The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham's empirical proof of the intromission theory of light (that is, that light rays entered the eyes rather than being emitted by them) was particularly important. Ibn al-Haytham has been called the "first scientist" because of his development of the scientific method.
Medicine in medieval Islam was an area of science that advanced particularly during the 'Abbasids' reign. During the ninth century of the Christian calendar, Baghdad contained over 800 doctors, and great discoveries in the understanding of anatomy and diseases were made. The clinical distinction between measles and smallpox was described during this time. The famous Persian scientist Ibn Sina (known to the West as Avicenna) produced treatises and works that summarized the vast amount of knowledge that scientists had accumulated. Ibn Sina was very influential through his encyclopedias, The Canon of Medicine and The Book of Healing. The work of Ibn Sina and many others directly influenced the research of European scientists during the Renaissance.
Astronomy in medieval Islam was advanced by al-Battani, who improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir were later incorporated into the Copernican heliocentric model. The astrolabe, though originally developed by the Greeks, was developed further by Islamic astronomers and engineers, and subsequently brought to medieval Europe.
Muslim alchemists influenced medieval European alchemists, particularly the writings attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber). A number of chemical processes such as distillation techniques were developed in the Muslim world and then spread to Europe.
The best known fiction from the Islamic world was The Book of One Thousand and One Nights (The Arabian Nights). The original concept is derived from pre-Islamic Iranian (Persian) prototype with reliance on Indian elements. It also includes stories from the rest of the Middle-Eastern and North African nations. The epic took form in the 10th century of the Christian calendar and reached its final form by the 14th century. During its evolution, the number and type of tales have varied from one manuscript to another. All Arabian fantasy tales were often called "Arabian Nights" when translated into English, regardless of whether they appeared in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights.
The epic of The Book of One Thousand and One Nights has been influential in the West since it was translated in the 18th century, first by Antoine Galland. Many imitations were written, especially in France. Various characters from this epic have themselves become cultural icons in Western culture, such as Aladdin, Sinbad and Ali Baba.
A famous example of Arabic poetry on romance was Layla and Majnun, which further developed mainly by Iranian, Azerbaijani and other poets in Persian, Azerbaijani, Turkish, and other Turk languages dating back to the Umayyad era in the 7th century. It is a tragic story of undying love much like the later Romeo and Juliet.
Arabic poetry reached its greatest heights in the 'Abbasid era, especially before the loss of central authority and the rise of the Persianate dynasties. Writers like Abu Tammam and Abu Nuwas were closely connected to the caliphal court in Baghdad during the early 9th century of the Christian calendar, while others such as al-Mutanabbi received their patronage from regional courts.
"Islamic philosophy" is commonly defined as being "the style of philosophy produced within the framework of Islamic culture." Islamic philosophy, under this definition, is neither necessarily concerned with religious issues, nor is it exclusively produced by Muslims. Muslim works on Aristotle were a key step in the transmission of learning from ancient Greeks to the Islamic world and the West. They often corrected the philosopher, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad -- the making of a decision in Islamic law (sharia) by personal effort (jihad), independently of any school (madhhab) of jurisprudence (fiqh). They also wrote influential original philosophical works, and their thinking was incorporated into Christian philosophy during the Middle Ages, notably by Thomas Aquinas.
Three speculative thinkers, al-Kindi, al-Farabi, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna), combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam, and Avicennism was later established as a result. Other influential Muslim philosophers in the Caliphates include al-Jahiz, and Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen).
In technology, the Muslim world adopted papermaking from China. The use of paper spread from China into the Muslim world in the eighth century of the Christian calendar, arriving in Spain (and then the rest of Europe) in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it ideal for making records and making copies of the Qur'an. Islamic paper makers devised assembly-line methods of hand-copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries. It was from Islam that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.
The knowledge of gunpowder was also transmitted from China via Islamic countries, where the formulas for pure potassium nitrate and an explosive gunpowder effect were first developed.
Advances were made in irrigation and farming, using new technology such as the windmill. Crops such as almonds and citrus fruit were brought to Europe through al-Andalus, and sugar cultivation was gradually adopted by the Europeans. Apart from the Nile, Tigris and Euphrates, navigable rivers were uncommon, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant (known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, Muslim sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large three masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab boat known as the qārib.
Arab merchants dominated trade in the Indian Ocean until the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century. Hormuz was an important center for this trade. There was also a dense network of trade routes in the Mediterranean, along which Muslim countries traded with each other and with European powers such as Venice, Genoa and Catalonia. The Silk Road crossing Central Asia passed through Muslim states between China and Europe.
Muslim engineers in the Islamic world made a number of innovative industrial uses of hydropower, and early industrial uses of tidal power, wind power, and petroleum (notably by distillation into kerosene). The industrial uses of watermills in the Islamic world date back to the 7th century, while horizontal-wheeled and vertical-wheeled water mills were both in widespread use since at least the 9th century. By the time of the Crusades, every province throughout the Islamic world had mills in operation, from al-Andalus and North Africa to the Middle East and Central Asia. These mills performed a variety of agricultural and industrial tasks.
Muslim engineers also developed machines (such as pumps) incorporating crankshafts, employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and used dams to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising machines. Such advances made it possible for many industrial tasks that were previously driven by manual labor in ancient times to be mechanized and driven by machinery instead in the medieval Islamic world. It has been reported that the industrial use of waterpower had spread from Islamic to Christian Spain, where fulling mills, paper mills, and forge mills were recorded for the first time in Catalonia.
A number of industries were given birth during the Arab Agricultural Revolution, including early industries for textiles, sugar, rope-making, matting, silk, and paper. Latin translations of the 12th century passed on knowledge of chemistry and instrument making in particular. The agricultural and handicraft industries also experienced high levels of growth during this period.
While the Abbasids originally gained power by exploiting the social inequalities against non-Arabs in the Umayyad Empire, ironically during Abbasid rule the empire rapidly Arabized. As knowledge was shared in the Arabic language throughout the empire, people of different nationalities and religions began to speak Arabic in their everyday lives. Resources from other languages began to be translated into Arabic, and a unique Islamic identity began to form that fused previous cultures with Arab culture, creating a level of civilization and knowledge that was considered a marvel in Europe.
The dynasty finally ended with Al-Mutawakkil III, who was taken away as a prisoner, by Selim I, to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role until his death in 1543.
The dynasty finally ended with Al-Mutawakkil III, who was taken away as a prisoner, by Selim I, to Constantinople where he had a ceremonial role until his death in 1543.
A listing of the 'Abbasid caliphs and the years of their reigns reads as follows:
Caliphs of Baghdad
Abu'l Abbas As-Saffah 750–754
Al-Mansur 754–775
Al-Mahdi 775–785
Al-Hadi 785–786
Harun al-Rashid 786–809
Al-Amin 809–813
Al-Ma'mun 813–833
Al-Mu'tasim 833–842
Al-Wathiq 842–847
Al-Mutawakkil 847–861
Al-Muntasir 861–862
Al-Musta'in 862–866
Al-Mu'tazz 866–869
Al-Muhtadi 869–870
Al-Mu'tamid 870–892
Al-Mu'tadid 892–902
Al-Muktafi 902–908
Al-Muqtadir 908–932
Al-Qahir 932–934
Ar-Radi 934–940
Al-Muttaqi 940–944
Al-Mustakfi 944–946
Al-Muti 946–974
At-Ta'i 974–991
Al-Qadir 991–1031
Al-Qa'im 1031–1075
Al-Muqtadi 1075–1094
Al-Mustazhir 1094–1118
Al-Mustarshid 1118–1135
Ar-Rashid 1135–1136
Al-Muqtafi 1136–1160
Al-Mustanjid 1160–1170
Al-Mustadi 1170–1180
An-Nasir 1180–1225
Az-Zahir 1225–1226
Al-Mustansir 1226–1242
Al-Musta'sim 1242–1258
Caliphs of Cairo
Al-Mustansir 1261–1262
Al-Hakim I (Cairo) 1262–1302
Al-Mustakfi I of Cairo 1303–1340
Al-Wathiq I 1340–1341
Al-Hakim II 1341–1352
Al-Mu'tadid I 1352–1362
Al-Mutawakkil I 1362–1383
Al-Wathiq II 1383–1386
Al-Mu'tasim 1386–1389
Al-Mutawakkil I (restored) 1389–1406
Al-Musta'in 1406–1414
Al-Mu'tadid II 1414–1441
Al-Mustakfi II 1441–1451
Al-Qa'im 1451–1455
Al-Mustanjid 1455–1479
Al-Mutawakkil II 1479–1497
Al-Mustamsik 1497–1508
Al-Mutawakkil III 1508–1517
'Abbadid
The 'Abbadids were a dynasty of kings (in Spanish the "reyes de taifas") of Seville. The Banu
'Abbad was a Hispano-Arab dynasty tracing their descent from the ancient Arab
Lakhmids. The 'Abbadids were noted for the cultural brilliance of their
court.
In power from 1023 to 1091 (an age known in Arabic as the "Muluk
al-Tawa’if"), the dynasty included three succeeding rulers, the first of whom
was 'Abbad ibn Muhammad (r.1023-1042), a qadi (magistrate) who governed behind
the screen of a puppet caliph. Following the downfall of the caliphate of
Cordoba, the qadi of Seville, 'Abbad ibn Muhammad, seized power in Seville,
initially in the name of the Hammudids. Such pretense was dropped by his son,
'Abbad al-Mutadid (r.1042-1068), who reigned openly and conquered several
adjacent petty kingdoms.
A poet, 'Abbad al-Mutadid was also a patron of the arts and kept a lavish court. In matters of extravagance, however, 'Abbad al-Mutadid (Abu Amri al-Mutadid/al-Mu'tadid bi'llah) was eclipsed by his son, 'Abbad al-Mutamid (Muhammad al-Mutamid/al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad) (r.1068-1091),
who made Seville the outstanding center of Muslim culture. Major patrons of the
arts and science, Seville grew under al-Mutadid and al-Mutamid to be the center
of the refined culture of the taifa kingdom and the most powerful state. Large
parts of al-Andalus (Spain) came under their authority: Huelva in 1052,
Algeciras in 1058, and Cordoba from 1069 to 1078.
Having added Cordoba to his realm early in his reign, al-Mutamid later sought help from the
Almoravids against Alfonso I of Castile, who was spearheading the Christian
reconquest of Spain. Al-Mutamid was the driving force behind the appeal for
help that was made to the Almoravids following the Christian capture of Toledo
in 1085.
Reinforced by the Almoravids, al-Mutamid defeated Alfonso I in
1086. However, his vacillation between 1089 and 1090 led to the conquest of
al-Andalus by the Almoravids, al-Mutamid's former allies. In 1091, the
Almoravids returned to Seville uninvited and deposed al-Mutamid. Al-Mutamid
died destitute in Morocco four years later.
Alternative names include:
'Abbadids
Banu 'Abbad
Reyes de Taifas
'Abbad was a Hispano-Arab dynasty tracing their descent from the ancient Arab
Lakhmids. The 'Abbadids were noted for the cultural brilliance of their
court.
In power from 1023 to 1091 (an age known in Arabic as the "Muluk
al-Tawa’if"), the dynasty included three succeeding rulers, the first of whom
was 'Abbad ibn Muhammad (r.1023-1042), a qadi (magistrate) who governed behind
the screen of a puppet caliph. Following the downfall of the caliphate of
Cordoba, the qadi of Seville, 'Abbad ibn Muhammad, seized power in Seville,
initially in the name of the Hammudids. Such pretense was dropped by his son,
'Abbad al-Mutadid (r.1042-1068), who reigned openly and conquered several
adjacent petty kingdoms.
A poet, 'Abbad al-Mutadid was also a patron of the arts and kept a lavish court. In matters of extravagance, however, 'Abbad al-Mutadid (Abu Amri al-Mutadid/al-Mu'tadid bi'llah) was eclipsed by his son, 'Abbad al-Mutamid (Muhammad al-Mutamid/al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad) (r.1068-1091),
who made Seville the outstanding center of Muslim culture. Major patrons of the
arts and science, Seville grew under al-Mutadid and al-Mutamid to be the center
of the refined culture of the taifa kingdom and the most powerful state. Large
parts of al-Andalus (Spain) came under their authority: Huelva in 1052,
Algeciras in 1058, and Cordoba from 1069 to 1078.
Having added Cordoba to his realm early in his reign, al-Mutamid later sought help from the
Almoravids against Alfonso I of Castile, who was spearheading the Christian
reconquest of Spain. Al-Mutamid was the driving force behind the appeal for
help that was made to the Almoravids following the Christian capture of Toledo
in 1085.
Reinforced by the Almoravids, al-Mutamid defeated Alfonso I in
1086. However, his vacillation between 1089 and 1090 led to the conquest of
al-Andalus by the Almoravids, al-Mutamid's former allies. In 1091, the
Almoravids returned to Seville uninvited and deposed al-Mutamid. Al-Mutamid
died destitute in Morocco four years later.
Alternative names include:
'Abbadids
Banu 'Abbad
Reyes de Taifas
Note to the Reader
This compilation of Muslim Dynasties is intended to be a continual work in progress. Undoubtedly, there will be errors that will be made in the course of creating this work. That is where you, the reader, can render me a great service. If you discover any errors that require that be made, please let me know and I will endeavor to make the appropriate corrections.
Thank you.
Thank you.
Introduction
I am not a Muslim. I am simply a man in search of truth -- the truth about myself, my people, my country, my world and God. In my search for truth, I have discovered that there is much that I once believed to be true that is certainly not the total truth and, indeed, may not be true at all.
Spain Africa and through persuasion and intermarriage converted the African people to the Islamic faith. And it was African Muslims from the west coast of Africa who frequently were the slave cargo of the European ships that came to the Americas
No, I am not a Muslim. But my personal heritage, and my personal experiences, compel me to say that here too I have a triple heritage. I have not just a Judeo-Christian heritage, but rather a heritage that is a combination of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
I once believed that I am only an African American. However, in my search for truth, I discovered that such a label is not entirely true. I discovered that, like me, most persons of African descent who live in the United States
As a so-called African American, I once believed that American slavery defined my past and impacted my present. But once I escaped the confines of the label, I learned that my triple heritage -- my African, European and Indigenous American heritage -- is far richer than I could ever have imagined. With a triple heritage, African slavery is not an overriding historical theme. With a triple heritage, the self-evident fact is that for people like me the overriding historical theme concerns the creation of a new people and the beginning of a new experiment with fascinating possibilities for the future history of man.
Another consequence of discovering the nature of a triple heritage is the realization that one of the defining labels that is currently en vogue in American society simply does not fit. On almost any day of the week, in schools, churches, and the halls of power throughout the land, one can hear pronouncements being made concerning the Judeo-Christian heritage of America
Yes, Islam has, undoubtedly, had an historical role in defining what it means to be an African American. But, for me, there is even more.
For me, there are moments and times in my life which are indelibly etched in my psyche. There was the time while living in Glasgow , Montana
There was the time in high school in 1969 when I first began to explore my African heritage by reading a story about a small time hoodlum who underwent two Islamic conversions -- first as the Nation of Islam leader known as Malcolm X and later as the more orthodox Muslim, El Hajj Malik Shabazz.
Then there was the crucial period of my life when during my first two years of college, in 1972 and 1973, I served as the "Minister of Information" of the Amherst
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)